What is the legacy of the Ancient Egyptians?
- The mystery of Egypt has captured the imagination of people for thousands of years
- The Egyptians constructed some of the world's largest monuments without modern technology
- Egyptian architecture and art has influenced modern architecture and art
- The Egyptians also made advances in astrology, astronomy, science and medicine
- The culture of the Egyptians is full of mystery and intrigue
Five thousand years ago the chain of independent city-states lining the River Nile united to form one long, thin country ruled by one king, or pharaoh. Almost instantly a highly distinctive culture developed. For almost 30 centuries Egypt remained the foremost nation in the Mediterranean world. Then, in 332 BC, the arrival of Alexander the Great heralded the end of the Egyptian way of life.
The unique culture was quickly buried beneath successive layers of Greek, Roman and Arabic tradition, and all knowledge of Egypt's glorious past was lost. Only the decaying stone monuments, their hieroglyphic texts now unreadable, survived as silent witnesses to a long lost civilisation.
"All ancient civilisations have contributed in some way to the development of modern society."
The unique culture was quickly buried beneath successive layers of Greek, Roman and Arabic tradition, and all knowledge of Egypt's glorious past was lost. Only the decaying stone monuments, their hieroglyphic texts now unreadable, survived as silent witnesses to a long lost civilisation.
"All ancient civilisations have contributed in some way to the development of modern society."
Ancient Egyptian Legacies
The Ancient Egyptians were possibly the first civilisation to practice the scientific arts. Indeed, the word chemistry is derived from the word Alchemy which is the ancient name for Egypt. Where the Egyptians really excelled was in medicine and applied mathematics. But although there is a large body of papyrus literature describing their achievements in medicine, there are no records of how they reached their mathematical conclusions. Of course they must have had an advanced understanding of the subject because their exploits in engineering, astronomy and administration would not have been possible without it.
The Egyptians had a decimal system using seven different symbols.
1 is shown by a single stroke.
10 is shown by a drawing of a hobble for cattle.
100 is represented by a coil of rope.
1,000 is a drawing of a lotus plant.
10,000 is represented by a finger.
100,000 by a tadpole or frog
1,000,000 is the figure of a god with arms raised above his head.
The Egyptians had a decimal system using seven different symbols.
1 is shown by a single stroke.
10 is shown by a drawing of a hobble for cattle.
100 is represented by a coil of rope.
1,000 is a drawing of a lotus plant.
10,000 is represented by a finger.
100,000 by a tadpole or frog
1,000,000 is the figure of a god with arms raised above his head.
Example
The conventions for reading and writing numbers is quite simple; the higher number is always written in front of the lower number and where there is more than one row of numbers the reader should start at the top.
Pyramids and Mathematics
Egypt's magnificent stone buildings - her pyramids and temples - have inspired innumerable artists, writers, poets and architects from the Roman period to the present day. The pyramid form, in particular, still pays an important role in modern architecture, and can be seen rising above cemeteries and innumerable shopping centres, and at the new entrance to the Louvre Museum, Paris.
They hold the key to understanding the structure of Egyptian society.
The original pyramids serve as a testament to the mathematical skill of the Egyptians, a skill that stimulated Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras, to perfect their work. The Great Pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops) in 2550 BC, for example, stands an impressive 46m (150ft) high, with a slope of 51degrees. Its sides, with an average length of 230m (754ft), vary by less than 5cm (2in). Higher than St Paul's Cathedral, the pyramid was aligned with amazing accuracy almost exactly to true north.
But the pyramids are more than mathematical puzzles. They hold the key to understanding the structure of Egyptian society. The pyramids were built, not by the gangs of slaves often portrayed by Hollywood film moguls, but by a workforce of up to 5,000 permanent employees, supplemented by as many as 20,000 temporary workers, who would work for three or four months on the pyramid site, before returning home.
They hold the key to understanding the structure of Egyptian society.
The original pyramids serve as a testament to the mathematical skill of the Egyptians, a skill that stimulated Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras, to perfect their work. The Great Pyramid, built by Khufu (Cheops) in 2550 BC, for example, stands an impressive 46m (150ft) high, with a slope of 51degrees. Its sides, with an average length of 230m (754ft), vary by less than 5cm (2in). Higher than St Paul's Cathedral, the pyramid was aligned with amazing accuracy almost exactly to true north.
But the pyramids are more than mathematical puzzles. They hold the key to understanding the structure of Egyptian society. The pyramids were built, not by the gangs of slaves often portrayed by Hollywood film moguls, but by a workforce of up to 5,000 permanent employees, supplemented by as many as 20,000 temporary workers, who would work for three or four months on the pyramid site, before returning home.
There are many unanswered questions in Ancient Egyptian history like how were obelisks raised? Who was Nefertiti? Where is the lost capital of Itj-Tawi?
"Some of these myths passed from Egypt to Rome, and have had a direct effect on the development of modern religious belief."
"While the Egyptians undeniably built the pyramids, the pyramids built Egypt."
"Some of these myths passed from Egypt to Rome, and have had a direct effect on the development of modern religious belief."
"While the Egyptians undeniably built the pyramids, the pyramids built Egypt."
Preservation
Egypt's rich material legacy is the result of her unique funerary beliefs, which, combined with her distinctive geography, encouraged the preservation of archaeological material. The River Nile flows northwards through the centre of Egypt, bringing much needed water to an otherwise arid part of north-east Africa.
This wealth of objects, of course, creates a highly biased collection of artefacts.
Their total dependence on the River Nile as a source of water and a means of transport had a deep impact on the way that the Egyptians saw the world. Their sun god, the falcon-headed Re, did not cross the heavens in a flaming chariot, he sailed sedately in a solar boat.
Parallel to the Nile on both banks of the river runs the Black Land - the narrow strip of fertile soil that allowed the Egyptians to practice the most efficient agriculture in the ancient world. Beyond the Black Land lies the inhospitable Red Land, the desert that once served as a vast cemetery, and beyond the Red Land are the cliffs that protected Egypt from unwelcome visitors.
This wealth of objects, of course, creates a highly biased collection of artefacts.
Their total dependence on the River Nile as a source of water and a means of transport had a deep impact on the way that the Egyptians saw the world. Their sun god, the falcon-headed Re, did not cross the heavens in a flaming chariot, he sailed sedately in a solar boat.
Parallel to the Nile on both banks of the river runs the Black Land - the narrow strip of fertile soil that allowed the Egyptians to practice the most efficient agriculture in the ancient world. Beyond the Black Land lies the inhospitable Red Land, the desert that once served as a vast cemetery, and beyond the Red Land are the cliffs that protected Egypt from unwelcome visitors.
Beneath The Bandages
The Egyptians were renowned throughout the Mediterranean world for their medical skills, skills that were eventually passed on to the Greek and the Roman doctors that followed them. Unlike those of other ancient societies, the Egyptians were experienced in dissecting corpses because, believing that their souls needed an earthly body, they preserved their dead as mummies.
...full of horrific stories of unwanted mummies being burned as torches...
Their disemboweled , dried and bandaged bodies were once regarded as useless curiosities to be unwrapped, stripped of their jewellery, then discarded, and the archaeological literature is full of horrific stories of unwanted mummies being burned as torches, ground into pigment, processed into brown paper and even dispensed as stomach medicine for the rich and gullible.
Today attitudes to the long-deceased have changed and it is no longer considered appropriate to destroy a mummy out of mere curiosity. However, the countless mummies, already unwrapped, stored in the world's museums and universities offer an incomparable source of ancient human tissue. The Manchester Mummy Project, led by Professor Rosalie David, has worked in close conjunction with Manchester University's medical faculties to develop a multi-disciplinary methodology for the examination of ancient human remains.
...full of horrific stories of unwanted mummies being burned as torches...
Their disemboweled , dried and bandaged bodies were once regarded as useless curiosities to be unwrapped, stripped of their jewellery, then discarded, and the archaeological literature is full of horrific stories of unwanted mummies being burned as torches, ground into pigment, processed into brown paper and even dispensed as stomach medicine for the rich and gullible.
Today attitudes to the long-deceased have changed and it is no longer considered appropriate to destroy a mummy out of mere curiosity. However, the countless mummies, already unwrapped, stored in the world's museums and universities offer an incomparable source of ancient human tissue. The Manchester Mummy Project, led by Professor Rosalie David, has worked in close conjunction with Manchester University's medical faculties to develop a multi-disciplinary methodology for the examination of ancient human remains.
Mummification
Anubis was the god of mummification. He had a human body and the head of a jackal. Anubis was the son of Nephthys. His job was to prepare the bodies of the dead to be received by Osiris.
"This photo of Anubis was taken in the temple of Hatshepsut in Luxor."
The first Egyptian mummies were bodies of people who had been buried in the desert. Their bodies dried out and remained whole. Later rich Egyptians were mummified after death. This procedure was a way of preserving the body for the afterlife. The procedure involved cleaning the body inside and out.
Embalmers of the Old Kingdom hadn't yet learned how to preserve the flesh. In the 4th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom embalmers began experimenting with natron. This is a compound of salts that is a close chemical composition of bicarbonate of soda. When the body was packed in natron crystals, the moisture was drawn out of the skin tissue. The consistent use of natron did not occur until the 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.
During the Fourth Dynasty Queen Hetepheres was the first royal Egyptian believed to have her organs dried out and preserved. First the body was cut open and the organs were removed. All the major organs were taken out except the heart and the kidneys. The brain was removed through the nose with an iron hook. In her tomb a chest with compartments was found. In the chest were the remains of Queen Hetepheres's stomach and other organs. In later years the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines were placed in canopic jars. The organs were carefully removed from the body and dried with natron. The brain was not considered an important organ and was not preserved.
Egyptians believed thoughts and reason came from the heart.
"This photo of Anubis was taken in the temple of Hatshepsut in Luxor."
The first Egyptian mummies were bodies of people who had been buried in the desert. Their bodies dried out and remained whole. Later rich Egyptians were mummified after death. This procedure was a way of preserving the body for the afterlife. The procedure involved cleaning the body inside and out.
Embalmers of the Old Kingdom hadn't yet learned how to preserve the flesh. In the 4th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom embalmers began experimenting with natron. This is a compound of salts that is a close chemical composition of bicarbonate of soda. When the body was packed in natron crystals, the moisture was drawn out of the skin tissue. The consistent use of natron did not occur until the 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.
During the Fourth Dynasty Queen Hetepheres was the first royal Egyptian believed to have her organs dried out and preserved. First the body was cut open and the organs were removed. All the major organs were taken out except the heart and the kidneys. The brain was removed through the nose with an iron hook. In her tomb a chest with compartments was found. In the chest were the remains of Queen Hetepheres's stomach and other organs. In later years the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines were placed in canopic jars. The organs were carefully removed from the body and dried with natron. The brain was not considered an important organ and was not preserved.
Egyptians believed thoughts and reason came from the heart.
Little bit of history
History, archaeology, Egyptology and wonder of Egypt's legacy also lies in her mystery and wealth. Since ancient times, foreigners have been intrigued by the mystery of Egypt, her gods and culture.
When the French conqueror Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798-99, he brought with him hundreds of keen historians and scientists. His soldiers and supporters made detailed notes and drawings of the monuments and inscriptions they found. These discoveries were published in a book called Description de l'Egypte and established modern Egyptology (the study of ancient Egypt) and archaeology. Hieroglyphs were translated by the French linguist Jean Francois Champollion in 1824. Egyptomania took hold of the world. But attention also brought tomb raiders. Mummies were taken from their tombs and used as fertiliser and firewood, tombs were looted for their valuables, and thousands of statues and slabs of wall paintings and reliefs were taken to foreign countries and put on display in museums.
In 1922 the archaeologist Howard Carter discovered the tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamen. The tomb was packed with gold and gilded items including thrones, chariots, statues, shrines and thousands of religious items.
Egypt's legacy is the story of an ancient and exotic land. The stories told by the wall paintings and hieroglyphs tell of intrigue, love, war and faith.
When the French conqueror Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798-99, he brought with him hundreds of keen historians and scientists. His soldiers and supporters made detailed notes and drawings of the monuments and inscriptions they found. These discoveries were published in a book called Description de l'Egypte and established modern Egyptology (the study of ancient Egypt) and archaeology. Hieroglyphs were translated by the French linguist Jean Francois Champollion in 1824. Egyptomania took hold of the world. But attention also brought tomb raiders. Mummies were taken from their tombs and used as fertiliser and firewood, tombs were looted for their valuables, and thousands of statues and slabs of wall paintings and reliefs were taken to foreign countries and put on display in museums.
In 1922 the archaeologist Howard Carter discovered the tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamen. The tomb was packed with gold and gilded items including thrones, chariots, statues, shrines and thousands of religious items.
Egypt's legacy is the story of an ancient and exotic land. The stories told by the wall paintings and hieroglyphs tell of intrigue, love, war and faith.
Art and architecture
Egypt also made a mark on the development of art. Egyptian pictures always showed heads from the side, shoulders from the front and arms, torsos, legs and feet from the side. These angles were considered the most beautiful. The Egyptians did not make their mark on art in this respect, but in sculpture. The Egyptians made life-sized and monumental sculptures. Ancient Egyptian artists used a grid to determine the proportions of the human body. Ancient Greeks travelling in Egypt adopted this form of sculpture and modified it to appear more natural. The Greeks also used the Egyptian grid. The Greek adaptation of Egyptian statuary and proportion has influenced classical and modern art.
The Egyptians also influenced architecture. Their design of doorways and use of obelisks can still be seen today. Obelisks are long, tall pinnacle-shaped monuments that stand upright. The Egyptians wrote important inscriptions on obelisks. Egyptian obelisks have been transported around the world as gifts between nations and have been adapted for modern usage.
The Egyptians also influenced architecture. Their design of doorways and use of obelisks can still be seen today. Obelisks are long, tall pinnacle-shaped monuments that stand upright. The Egyptians wrote important inscriptions on obelisks. Egyptian obelisks have been transported around the world as gifts between nations and have been adapted for modern usage.
Inventions and discoveries
The ancient Egyptian culture had a strong impact on other ancient civilisations. Egyptian priests had invented items that measured time, including the sun dial, water clock and calendar. The Roman politician Julius Caesar used the ancient Egyptian calendar as a model for the Roman calendar, which was used in Western cultures until it was modified slightly in 1582. The ancient Egyptians also developed the basic unit of measuring length, the cubit. They made observations about astrology and astronomy and had a developed understanding of medicine and the human body.
One of the greatest legacies of ancient Egypt was the invention of papyrus, reed paper. Papyrus was highly sought after as paper for writing. It was the first paper and was used for important documents both by the Egyptians and other ancient civilisations. Papyrus was used for thousands of years.
One of the greatest legacies of ancient Egypt was the invention of papyrus, reed paper. Papyrus was highly sought after as paper for writing. It was the first paper and was used for important documents both by the Egyptians and other ancient civilisations. Papyrus was used for thousands of years.